"I ...called on all my fellow-diggers, irrespective of nationality, religion or colour, to salute the 'Southern Cross' as the refuge of all the oppressed from all the countries on earth. - The applause was universal, accordingly I received my full reward: prison and chains! Old Style." Raffaello Carboni - 1856
"It was a revolution - small in size, but great politically; it was a strike against injustice and oppression...It is another instance of a victory won by a lost battle. It adds an honourable page to history; the people know it and are proud of it. They keep green the memory of the men who fell at the Eureka Stockade." Mark Twain, 1897
In the 18th and 19th centuries, America was an inspiration for people around the world. Migrants had flowed into America, stood up to their master class, and against all odds, won their liberty. So inspiring were their stories that migrants tried to replicate them in Australia. They had flowed in Australia looking for gold but instead they found a corrupt ruling class treating migrants the way they had been treating Convicts. To find their liberty, in 1854 the goldfield Diggers designed their flag, said their oath, made their salutes and gave their stirring speeches. Unfortunately, their stand ended in catastrophe. Perhaps the Diggers thought that battles could be won on noble ideals alone. They quickly found out that noble ideals lacking in conviction, weapons, and sound planning, ended in massacre.
Ironically, the Diggers lost so badly that their emotive stories of being massacred combined with their inspiring words of solidarity to build wide-spread sympathy. Realising that Eureka could be like the Alamo as a rallying cause, the British gave the Diggers all they asked for; thus ensuring their loss was turned into a victory.
In some ways it was fortunate that the Diggers lost. After being granted fair representation, one of the leaders of the rebellion, Peter Lalor, entered parliament and revealed that had the Diggers won the battle, people like himself would have exploited their emotion as so many other dictators have done around the world. He publicly argued against democracy, used Chinese contract labourers to break union picket lines, and voted for land bills that empowered the rich. In a nutshell, making a stand resulted in the Diggers getting what they asked for, but their loss ensured they wouldn’t get the kind of dictator that has followed most revolutions around the world.
Background
Australia was a corrupt dictatorship for the first 50 years of its modern history. Governors had unquestioned authority and the military used their power to the strategic interests of themselves and the colony's elites. A man could simply be picked off the street and flogged for something as trivial as having his hands in his pockets.
In 1853, the discovery of gold sparked massive waves of immigration. Miners from all over the world descended upon Australia and brought with them ideas of liberty, equality and fraternity. But the authorities treated the new arrivals in the same manner they had been treating the Convicts. They levied a crushing licence tax on the prospectors and troopers used whips, musket butts, boots and bayonets to collect it. Mounted troopers would engage in "Digger hunts" through the goldfields where prospectors would be ridden down in front of their comrades, beaten up, charged, and then fined.
At times, the troopers didn't even bother about hunting the Diggers without a licence. Instead, they would just target any Digger, beat him up, and if need be, have him prosecuted for assault. In one example, troopers targeted a disabled man from Armenia who was a servant to a priest. After being told to produce a licence, the disabled man tried to explain in broken English that he was a servant. Subsequently, the troopers knocked him down, and dragged him over the goldfields. Raffaello Carboni, one of the leaders of the Eureka rebellion, explained the outcome of the disabled man's trial:
"McGregorius is not charged with being without a licence, but with assaulting the trooper Lord - ridiculous! This alters the case. The trooper is called, and says the old story about the execution of 'dooty,' that is, licence-hunting.A respectable witness takes his oath that he saw the trooper strike the foreigner with his clenched fist, and knock him down. The end of the story is in the Ballarat tune, then in vogue: 'Fined five pounds; take him away.' "
Mob justice
Anti-trooper sentiment reached boiling point when a Digger, James Scobie, was murdered on October 17 1854. Some Diggers believed the culprit was the local publican. An angry mob agreed and thousands gathered to deliver the verdict. The local commissioner tried to calm the maddening crowd but soon eggs were flying towards his face. A short time later the publican's hotel was on fire. While it was burning to the ground, liqour bottles were salvaged, distributed to the crowd, and drunk in "colonial style."
There was great celebration as the hotel finally collapsed in flames. Symbolically, the Diggers saw it as a sign that they were the new masters of the gold field.
November 11 - Proposed changes to the political system
On November 11, a crowd estimated at more than 10,000 Diggers gathered at Bakery Hill, directly opposite the government encampment. The Diggers proposed a series of changes to the political system. These were:
1)A full and fair representation
2)Manhood suffrage
3)No property qualification for members of the Legislative Council
4)Payment of members
5)Short duration of parliament
November 29 - Burning licences
On the 29th of November, 15,000 Diggers gathered for a meeting. Chair of the meeting, Timothy Hayes, shouted to the crowd:
"Will four thousand of you volunteer to march up to the camp, and open the lock-up to liberate the man?"
In a deafening clamour the crowd roared: "yes!"
Hayes then asked: "Are you ready to die"
In response, the crowded yelled: "Yes, Yes! Hurrah!"
Revolvers were fired into the air and licences were burnt.
November 30 - Unveiling the flag
On November 30, the Eureka Flag was unveiled and the stockade was built. Carboni wrote of the event:
"The maiden appearance of our standard, in the midst of armed men, sturdy, self-overworking diggers of all languages and colours, was a fascinating object to behold....Some five hundred armed diggers advanced in real sober earnestness, the captains of each division making the military salute to Lalor, who now knelt down, the head uncovered, and with the right hand pointing towards the standard exclaimed in a firm measured tone:-
'WE SWEAR BY THE SOUTHERN CROSS TO STAND TRULY BY EACH OTHER, AND FIGHT TO DEFEND OUR RIGHTS AND LIBERTIES.'
An universal well rounded AMEN, was the determined reply: some five hundred right hands stretched towards our flag.
The earnestness of so many faces of all kinds of shape and colour; the motley heads of all sorts of size and hair; the shagginess of so many beards of all lengths and thicknesses; the vividness of double the number of eyes electrified by the magnetism of the southern cross; one of those grand sights, such as are recorded only in the history of 'the Crusaders in Palestine.'"
Over the next few days, more than 1,500 men trained at the stockade in preparation for battle. While all showed a keenness to fight, the Digger's trump card was likely to be 200 well-armed Californian Rangers equipped with horses and guns.
December 3 - Fighting the battle
The Diggers' words were strong, but they were short of weapons and planning. Diggers came and left, while others went about their business looking for gold. Other Diggers foolishly believed that no attack would occur on a Sunday, the day of the Sabbath, and simply weren't prepared.
After surveying the situation, the British assembled a force of some 300 men. A false rumour was planted amongst the Diggers that more British reinforcements would be coming from Melbourne. Gallantly, the Californian Rangers rode off to intercept them. Free grog also mysteriously appeared amongst the Diggers' campsites and the Diggers didn't let it go to waste.
With the Rangers out of the way and other Diggers attending Church, work issues or just sleeping off their hangovers, the stockade was being defended by less than 100 men. It was not enough.
At 4.45am on December 3, the first shots rang out. 30 Diggers, armed with metal pikes, quickly rallied to engage the soldiers armed with muskets. While brave, the pikemen didn't fare too well against guns, and the sight of them being slaughtered caused other Diggers to flee.
Within 15 minutes, the stockade had been smashed and 30 Diggers were dead. The flag was torn down to a chorus of British laughter. Only four British soldiers lost their lives. Tents both inside and outside the stockade were then set on fire.
The next day a notice was posted that read:
" Her Majesty's forces were this morning fired upon by a large body of evil-disposed persons of various nations, who had entrenched themselves in a stockade on the Eureka, and some officers and men killed. Several of the rioters have paid the penalty of their crime, and a large number are in custody. All well-disposed persons are earnestly requested to return to their ordinary occupations, and to abstain from assembling in large groups, and every protection will be afforded to them by the authorities. ROBT. REDE, Resident Commissioner God save the Queen. "
Another Alamo?
The Eureka massacre had the potential to be a rallying event against the British just like the Alamo was for Texans against the Mexicans. Although the Diggers in the stockade had been defeated, and hadn't put up much of a fight, most of the Diggers who had pledged to die had not fought at all. Hearing stories of their mates being killed indiscriminately further inflamed them.
Quite wisely, the British caved in. Licence fees were reduced, Digger hunts came to an end and changes were made to the political system in accordance with the Diggers' demands.
As for the 13 Diggers that had been arrested after the massacre, they were tried with treason, spent a few months in jail, eventually given a trial by jury and found not guilty. One of the men, John Joseph, a black from America, was carried around the streets of Melbourne in a chair in triumph by over 10,000 people. Carboni was elected to the local court at Ballarat to adjudicate mining disputes.
Another man, Peter Lalor, lost an arm in the battle and was hidden while the other men went on trial. After they were acquitted, Lalor's arrest warrant was withdrawn and he stood for the new Victorian parliament. As a hero, he was elected with much euphoria. However, he soon found that it was more difficult to become popular by making decisions in a democracy than it was by saluting a flag, making a speech and firing guns into the air. He used Chinese contract labour to break the picket lines of striking miners, he opposed an elected upper house, opposed universal manhood suffrage and voted for bills that empowered the rich. After leaving the people of Ballarat feeling betrayed, Lalor stood for the seat of South Grenville and enjoyed a long career in politics.
SUNDAY DECEMBER 3RD - Diary of 19-year-old Samuel Lazarus "A large body of soldiers were entering the gully leading to the camp with three dray loads of dead and wounded … I guessed at once that the military had made an attack on the Eureka Stockade, but I did not guess that Englishmen in authority had made such a savage and cowardly use of their power. I entered (the stockade) and a ghastly scene lay before me which it is vain to attempt to describe — My blood crept as I looked upon it. Stretched on the ground in all the horrors of a bloody death lay 18 or 20 lifeless and mutilated bodies — some shot in the face, others literally riddled with wounds — one with a ghastly wound in the temples and one side of his body absolutely roasted by the flames of his tent — Another, the most horrible of these appalling spectacles, with a frightful gaping wound in … his head through which the brains protruded, lay with his chest feebly heaving in the last agony of death. One body pierced with 16 or 17 wounds I recognised as that of a poor German whom I have often joked with. Newly-made widows recognising the bloody remains of a slaughtered husband — children screaming and crying around a dead father — surely the man that polluted the early dawn of a Sabbath's morning with such a deed of blood and suffering must have a stony heart if he does not think with keen remorse on the desolation of many a widowed heart his merciless work has left. But this sanguinary carnage, revolting as it is to the mind, is not half so sickening as the savage wanton barbarity of the troopers. Did not turn their swords on armed men, but galloped courageously among the tents shooting at women, and cutting down defenceless men … (A) trooper galloped up to Mr Naslam (reporter for one of the papers) and ordered him to join the government force. He … gave an excuse (which was strictly true) that he was unwell, when the wretch at once levelled his carbine and shot him in the side. Not content with this wanton barbarity he handcuffed him and left him on the ground weltering in his blood. Another man … awoke by the firing, went out of his tent in his shirt and drawers and seeing the savage butchery going on cried out in terror — "for God's sake don't kill my wife and children". He was shot dead."
Bulletin, 21 Jan 1888
' Australia began her political history as a crouching serf kept in subjection by the whip of a ruffian gaoler, and her progress, so far, consists merely in a change of masters. Instead of a foreign slave-driver, she has a foreign admiral; the loud-mouthed tyrant has given place to the suave hireling in uniform; but when the day comes to claim their independence the new ruler will probably prove more dangerous and more formidable that the old.' Rather than 'the day we were lagged', said the Bulletin, Australia's national day should be December 3, the anniversary of the Eureka rebellion, 'the day that Australia set her teeth in the face of the British Lion'.
Activity 1 – The Convict link in the Eureka chain
Activity purpose – To consider how the symbolism of history is used by people not directly descended from that history
Most of the Diggers that rebelled at the Eureka stockade had not come to Australia in penal servitude nor were they descendants of people who came to Australia in penal servitude. Nevertheless, Australia’s Convict heritage perhaps contributed to the stockade taking place and shaped the way that it was thought of. Consider the following paragraph by Raffaello Carboni, one of the leaders of the rebellion:
"McGregorius is not charged with being without a licence, but with assaulting the trooper Lord - ridiculous! This alters the case. The trooper is called, and says the old story about the execution of 'dooty,' that is, licence-hunting. A respectable witness takes his oath that he saw the trooper strike the foreigner with his clenched fist, and knock him down. The end of the story is in the Ballarat tune, then in vogue: 'Fined five pounds; take him away.' "
What does Carboni suggest about the background of the police by spelling ‘duty’ as ‘dooty?’
Why do you think Carboni uses quotation marks when writing ‘dooty’?
Why do you think duty was the only defence that the troopers needed?
How do you think that 50 years of managing a Convict population would have influenced the trooper conduct when policing a civilian population?
Activity 2 – Eureka Stockade as a patriotic event
Activity purpose – To understand the symbolic role that the Eureka Stockade has played in Australian patriotism
Read the following paragraph published in the Bulletin, 21 Jan 1888 :
' Australia began her political history as a crouching serf kept in subjection by the whip of a ruffian gaoler, and her progress, so far, consists merely in a change of masters. Instead of a foreign slave-driver, she has a foreign admiral; the loud-mouthed tyrant has given place to the suave hireling in uniform; but when the day comes to claim their independence the new ruler will probably prove more dangerous and more formidable that the old.' Rather than 'the day we were lagged', said the Bulletin, Australia's national day should be December 3, the anniversary of the Eureka rebellion, 'the day that Australia set her teeth in the face of the British Lion'.
What date does ‘the day we were lagged’ refer to?
Why do you think the author mentions Australia’s Convict heritage when advocating December 3 as a new national day?
What would be some problems associated with celebrating the Convict contribution on Australia Day or the anniversary of the Eureka Stockade as an alternative to Australia Day?
Research the role that Convict heritage has played on Australia Day over the last 200 years.
Activity 3 – Pictorial analysis
Activity purpose - To apply skills in picture analysis to understand how history is used in calls to political action
Why do you think the artist has described being repressed as being forced to dance?
Why has the artist referenced Convict heritage to make a point about government conduct a century later?
Why does the artist use a tune as an allegory of historical governance ?
Describe the similarities and differences between the two men dancing. Try to explain why they may have been drawn differently.
Activity 4 – Problems with the political system
Activity purpose – To understand how grassroots movements seek legal reform to increase equality of opportunity
On November 11, a crowd estimated at more than 10,000 Diggers gathered at Bakery Hill, directly opposite the government encampment. The Diggers proposed a series of changes to the political system. These were:
1)A full and fair representation
2)Manhood suffrage
3)No property qualification for members of the Legislative Council
4)Payment of members
5)Short duration of parliament
Why do you think the Diggers wanted short duration of parliament, payment for members and the no property qualification for members of the Legislative Council?
Activity 5 – Attitudes to British rule amongst the Diggers
Activity purpose – To consider how the Eureka Stockade represented a point of identity departure between people not of British descent and those of British descent
On November 30, the Eureka Flag was unveiled and the stockade was built. Carboni wrote of the event:
"The maiden appearance of our standard, in the midst of armed men, sturdy, self-overworking diggers of all languages and colours, was a fascinating object to behold....Some five hundred armed diggers advanced in real sober earnestness, the captains of each division making the military salute to Lalor, who now knelt down, the head uncovered, and with the right hand pointing towards the standard exclaimed in a firm measured tone:-
'WE SWEAR BY THE SOUTHERN CROSS TO STAND TRULY BY EACH OTHER, AND FIGHT TO DEFEND OUR RIGHTS AND LIBERTIES.'
An universal well rounded AMEN, was the determined reply: some five hundred right hands stretched towards our flag.
The earnestness of so many faces of all kinds of shape and colour; the motley heads of all sorts of size and hair; the shagginess of so many beards of all lengths and thicknesses; the vividness of double the number of eyes electrified by the magnetism of the southern cross; one of those grand sights, such as are recorded only in the history of 'the Crusaders in Palestine..."
"I ...called on all my fellow-diggers, irrespective of nationality, religion or colour, to salute the 'Southern Cross' as the refuge of all the oppressed from all the countries on earth. - The applause was universal, accordingly I received my full reward: prison and chains! Old Style."
Why do you think Carboni repeatedly mentioned the diversity of the languages, colours and appearance of the Diggers?
As someone who was not Anglo, what do you think the Eureka Rebellion meant to Carboni?
Why do you think Carboni refers to prison and chains as a reward in the old style? What does that mean?
The trooper response to the stockade also mentioned the nationality of the Diggers. To be precise, a notice was posted that read:
" Her Majesty's forces were this morning fired upon by a large body of evil-disposed persons of various nations, who had entrenched themselves in a stockade on the Eureka, and some officers and men killed…God Save the Queen."
Why do you think the troopers likewise mentioned the diversity of Diggers' nationalities? Which side do you think a "patriot" of the era would have been on?
Activity 6 –A trial for propaganda
Activity purpose – To understand how a British government used race to try to manipulate public support for an anti-government protest
Over 1,500 men trained at the stockade in preparation for battle but only 13 were arrested and tried with treason after the rebellion. Two of these men were black, one was an Italian (Carboni), another was a Jew and the rest were Irish.
Do you think non-Anglo races were targeted for prosecution in order to erode support for the stockade? Why or why not?
A jury found all thirteen men not guilty and they became colonial heroes. One of the black men, John Joseph, was carried around the streets in triumph by over 10,000 people.
What did the jury’s verdict and the celebration of John Joseph suggest about attitudes to non-Anglo people at the time?
The American government secured the release of white Americans who had been involved in the stockade but not John Joseph, an American black.
Can you think of any historical explanations for why Australia and America had different attitudes to black people at the time?
It is commonly presumed that attitudes become more progressive and enlightened with time. Knowing what you know about the Eureka Stockade, do you think attitudes in regards to racial diversity were more enlightened in the 1850s or 1950s?
Why do you think Australia progressed or regressed from the 1850s to the 1950s?
Activity 7 – A bullet dodged?
Activity purpose - To understand how revolutionary leaders who claim to be on the side of the people often just want to exploit the people for their own individual self interest
Peter Lalor, the principle ringleader, lost an arm in the battle and was hidden while the other men went on trial. After they were acquitted, Lalor's arrest warrant was withdrawn and he stood for the new Victorian parliament. As a hero, he was elected with much euphoria. However, he subsequently used Chinese contract labour to break the picket lines of striking miners, he opposed an elected upper house, opposed universal manhood suffrage and voted for bills that empowered the rich. After leaving the people of Ballarat feeling betrayed, Lalor stood for the seat of South Grenville (an affluent area) and enjoyed a long career in politics.
If the Eureka battle had been won by the Diggers, what type of leader do you think Lalor would have been?
Do you think Lalor was masking his true feelings when he raised the flag and said his oath?
Do you think that Lalor was changed by the Eureka Stockade because he suffered an injury or saw something in other Diggers that he disliked?
If the rebellion had been a success, do you think Australia would have federated? What type of country do you think it would have become?
Activity 8 - Riot or revolution?
Watch the youtube video below and write an argument about whether the Eureka Stockade was a riot or revolution.
Activity 9 - The flag in Australia today
The flag has been adopted by some Australian unions, the Australian Communist Party, and white supremacist groups such as the National Front.
Research some of these organisations. Do you think the grievances of the miners were consistent with the stated objectives of these organisations?
Why do you think these organisations adopted the flag?
